Reports

From BioenergyWiki

This page lists and links to reports dealing with all aspects of bioenergy, arranged on thematic and geographical basis. Papers whose primary purpose is to advocate a specific policy or approach are in Position papers.

International

Reports by the United Nations or dealing with international issues (newest first):

The Energy Report (PDF file) - The Energy Report, produced by WWF and Ecofys, envisions a possible scenario in which the world’s energy supply is provided by renewable and sustainable sources by 2050; February 2011.

International trade in biofuels: an introduction to the special issue (PDF file) - International trade in biofuels: an introduction to the special issue; May 2009.

Risk governance guidelines for bioenergy policies (PDF file) - This International Risk Governance Council (IRGC) Policy Brief identified several substantial deficits in the current governance of the opportunities and risks of bioenergy, and proposes a number of recommendations for improving the assessment and the management of major risks related to an unsustainable development of bioenergy, and in particular liquid biofuels. October 2008.

Sustainable Bioenergy: A Framework for Decision Makers (PDF file) - UN-Energy. An overview of the benefits and risks of bioenergy and what policy makers have to do to ensure environmental, social and economic sustainability. April 2007.

Energy R-evolution A SUSTAINABLE WORLD ENERGY OUTLOOK: Global report (PDF file) - European Renewable Energy Council and Greenpeace; January 2007.

Renewables 2006: Global Status Report Update (PDF file) by Eric Martinot (lead author); prepared for REN21 by Worldwatch Institute, 2006.

'‎Biofuels for Transportation: Global Potential and Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Energy in the 21st Century (PDF file)’, Worldwatch Institute, June 2006.

Energy in the United Nations: An Overview of UN-Energy Activities (PDF file) - UN-Energy, April 2006.

Sustainable International Bioenergy Trade: Securing Supply and Demand (PDF file) - Sustainable International Bioenergy Trade (Task 40), IEA Bioenergy March 2006.

The Emerging Biofuels Market: Regulatory, Trade and Development Implications (PDF file) prepared by Simonetta Zarrilli; UNCTAD, 2006.

Introducing the International Bioenergy Platform (IBEP) (PDF file) - FAO, 2006.

Renewables 2005: Global Status Report (PDF file) by Eric Martinot (lead author); prepared for REN21 by Worldwatch Institute, 2005.

Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP) - White Paper (PDF file) - Italian Ministry for the Environment, Territory and Sea, October 2005.

Bioenergy - UN FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), April 2005.

Biofuels for Transport- An International Perspective - IEA, 11 May 2004.

Agriculture

Measuring the Indirect Land-Use Change Associated With Increased Biofuel Feedstock Production (PDF) by USDA Economic Research Service and the Office of the Chief Economist, February 2011. "This report summarizes the current state of knowledge of the drivers of land-use change and describes the analytic methods used to estimate the impact of biofuel feedstock production on land use.The larger the impact of domestic biofuels feedstock production on commodity prices and the availability of exports, the larger the international land-use effects are likely to be. The amount of pressure placed on land internationally will depend in part on how much of the land needed for biofuel production is met through an expansion of agricultural land in the United States."

Implications of Energy and Carbon Policies for the Agriculture and Forestry Sectors (PDF) By Burton C. English, Daniel G. De La Torre Ugarte, Chad Hellwinckel, Kimberly L. Jensen, R. Jamey Menard, Tristram O. West, and Christopher D. Clark, November 2010. "The 25x'25 Alliance asked the University of Tennessee’s Bio‐Based Energy Analysis Group (BEAG) to analyze how several proposed policy instruments might impact land use change, feedstock production, feedstock prices, and farm income, as well as carbon costs and payments for producers. Results in this report focus on agriculture and forestry sector analysis; providing potential impacts on agriculture and forestry as a result of the establishment of a [ US ] national Renewable Electricity Standard (RES) and the allowance of carbon capture and sequestration payments."

Soy oil and indirect land use change: Biofuel crops, indirect land use change and emissions (PDF) by Friends of the Earth Europe, August 2010. "Friends of the Earth illustrates the reality of indirect land use change, highlighting how the EU’s biofuel policy could in fact be aggravating climate change. This briefing looks at how demand for soy oil is contributing to ILUC through the knock-on effects on the demand for palm oil."

“Sustainable” palm oil driving deforestation: Biofuel crops, indirect land use change and emissions (PDF) by Friends of the Earth Europe, August 2010. "This briefing looks at how demand for “sustainable” palm oil is contributing to ILUC. This is illustrated using the example of Malaysian palm oil company Sime Darby which is deforesting new land partially in order to meet increase in demand for certified palm oil for biofuel."

Sugar cane and land use change in Brazil: Biofuel crops, indirect land use change and emissions (PDF) by Friends of the Earth Europe, August 2010. "This briefing looks at how increased demand for sugar cane has led to other agriculture being displaced in Brazil, resulting in deforestation and the loss of important stores of carbon dioxide."

Global land-use implications of first and second generation biofuel targets by Petr Havlík, Uwe A. Schneider, Erwin Schmid, Hannes Böttcher, Steffen Fritz, Rastislav Skalský, Kentaro Aoki, Stéphane De Cara, Georg Kindermann, Florian Kraxner, Sylvain Leduc, Ian McCallum, Aline Mosnier, Timm Sauer and Michael Obersteiner, April 2010. "In this paper we provide a detailed analysis of the iLUC effect, and further address the issues of deforestation, irrigation water use, and crop price increases due to expanding biofuel acreage. We use GLOBIOM – an economic partial equilibrium model of the global forest, agriculture, and biomass sectors with a bottom-up representation of agricultural and forestry management practices. The results indicate that second generation biofuel production fed by wood from sustainably managed existing forests would lead to a negative iLUC factor, meaning that overall emissions are 27% lower compared to the 'No biofuel' scenario by 2030."

Jatropha: A Smallholder Bioenergy Crop The Potential for Pro-Poor Development (PDF) by Richard Brittaine and NeBambi Lutaladio: "The review provides a brief overview of biofuels, their growth drivers and their potential impacts on poor societies. It looks at how jatropha, which originated in Central America and then spread across Africa and Asia, has become widespread throughout the tropics and subtropics. It also builds upon technical and scientific information on key issues affecting jatropha for pro-poor development."

Indirect effects of biofuels: intensification of agricultural production by Stehfest E., Ros J. and Bouwman L. for the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency: "Agricultural intensification has the potential to reduce indirect land-use change from biofuels. If such intensification is realised only by applying more fertiliser, this may lead to substantial indirect greenhouse gas emissions. Improvement of fertiliser-use efficiency is essential to prevent these emissions."

World Food and Agriculture to 2030/50: How do climate change and bioenergy alter the long-term outlook for food, agriculture and resource availability? (PDF file) by Günther Fischer prepared for the FAO Expert Meeting on “How to Feed the World in 2050,” August 2009. This reports looks at issues such as agriculture, biofuels, climate change, food security and sustainability. [1]

Towards better practice in smallholder palm oil production (PDF file) by Sonja Vermeulen and Nathalie Goad, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), July 2006.

Climate change

Biogenic vs. geologic carbon emissions and forest biomass energy production by John S. Gunn, David J. Ganz, and William S. Keeton, September 2011. "This report presents the opinion that this is an inappropriate conceptual basis to assess the atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting of woody biomass energy generation. While there are many other environmental, social, and economic reasons to move to woody biomass energy, we argue that the inferred benefits of biogenic emissions over fossil fuel emissions should be reconsidered."[2]

Land Use Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Conventional Oil Production and Oil Sands by Sonia Yeh, Sarah Jordaan, Adam Brandt, Merritt Turetsky, Sabrina Spatari, and David Keith, October 2010. "When contrasting land use GHG intensity of fossil fuel and biofuel production, it is the energy yield that greatly distinguishes the two. Although emissions released from land disturbed by fossil fuels can be comparable or higher than biofuels, the energy yield of oil production is typically 2-3 orders of magnitude higher, (0.33-2.6, 0.61-1.2, and 2.2-5.1 PJ/ha) for conventional oil production, oil sands surface mining, and in situ production, respectively."[3]

Greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical peatlands in south-east Asia (PDF) by John Couwenberg, Rene Dommain, and Hans Joosten HANS, June 2010. "This paper provides a review and meta-analysis of available literature on greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical peat soils in south-east Asia. As in other parts of the world, water level is the main control on greenhouse gas fluxes from south-east Asian peat soils. Based on subsidence data we calculate emissions of at least 900 g CO2 m−2 a−1 (∼250 g C m−2 a−1) for each 10 cm of additional drainage depth."[4]

The Copenhagen Accord Fact Sheet (PDF) by the National Wildlife Federation, April 2010. This report highlights the outcomes of the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), held in Copenhagan in December of 2009.
- "While the Copenhagen Accord falls short of this benchmark, it does represent a step forward by acquiring voluntary pledges from both developed and developing nations to make new commitments to address their emissions, allowing some third-party oversight of these actions, and providing crucial “fast start” financing to help the least developed countries that will be the most impacted by climate change. The Copenhagen Accord also marks the first time that major emitting developing countries such as China and India, have put forward pledges to the UN to reduce the future growth of their emissions."[5]

Effects of US Maize Ethanol on Global Land Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Estimating Market-mediated Responses by Thomas W. Hertel, Alla A. Golub, Andrew D. Jones, Michael O'Hare, Richard J. Plevin, and Daniel M. Kammen, April 2010. "This article analyzes these releases for maize ethanol produced in the United States. Factoring market-mediated responses and by-product use into our analysis reduces cropland conversion by 72% from the land used for the ethanol feedstock. Consequently, the associated GHG release estimated in our framework is 800 grams of carbon dioxide per megajoule (MJ); 27 grams per MJ per year, over 30 years of ethanol production, or roughly a quarter of the only other published estimate of releases attributable to changes in indirect land use."[6]

Financing the Response to Climate Change (PDF file) IMF staff position note by Hugh Bredenkamp and Catherine Pattillo, 25 March 2010. "This note outlines a scheme for mobilizing financing to help developing countries confront the challenges posed by climate change. The idea is to create a “Green Fund” with the capacity to raise resources on a scale commensurate with the Copenhagen Accord ($100 billion a year by 2020)."
- "By providing a unified resource mobilization framework, with up-front agreement on burden-sharing and the capacity to meet the financing needs identified at Copenhagen, the Green Fund could facilitate progress toward a binding global agreement on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and allow developing countries to begin scaling up their climate change responses without delay."[7]

Role of Black Carbon in Global and Regional Climate Changes: Testimonial to the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform (PDF file) by V. Ramanathan, 18 October 2007. This reports looks at black carbon which is, "a form of aerosol (suspended particle in the air) emitted as soot, both indoors (from cooking with wood, cow dung and crop residues) and outdoors (bio mass burning, coal and diesel combustion)."

ENERGY, ECOSYSTEMS and LIVELIHOODS: Understanding linkages in the face of climate change impacts (PDF file) by Laura Williamson (HELIO International) and Nadine McCormick (IUCN), 2008. The report addresses issues such as climate change, energy security, and environmental impacts.

Climate mitigation through Biofuels in the Transport Sector (PDF file) by Markus Quirin, Sven Gartner, Martin Pehnt, Guido A. Reinhardt; IFEU, August 2004.

Development

Do Biofuel Subsidies Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions? (PDF File) by R. Quentin Grafton, Tom Kompas, and Mgo Van Long, 2001. "Biofuel subsidies can generate supply-side response by fossil fuel producers that accelerates their rate of extraction, even in the case where fossil fuel extraction costs are stock dependent. Thus, policies designed to reduce GHG emissions may, perversely, hasten climate change."

Biochar: A critical review of science and policy by Biofuelwatch, 2011. "This report takes a critical look at the claims around biochar, reviews the science underlying the claims, provides an overview of what biochar advocates are pushing for in terms of policies and supports, and presents an outline of the companies involved."

Small-scale Electricity Generation from Biomass (PDF File) by GIZ-HERA, 2011. "This paper attempts to assess the current state of local off-grid electricity generation based on plant oil for rural areas in developing countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia."

Biocharred Pathways to Sustainability? Triple Wins, Livelihoods and the Politics of Technological Promise (PDF File) by Melissa Leach, James Fairhead, James Fraser and Eliza Lehner, 2010. "This paper tracks key narratives and positions in this emerging ‘politics of technological promise’ around biochar, and thus reflects on the prospects of biochar becoming part of pathways to sustainability that also meet the livelihood priorities of small farmers in rural African settings and beyond."

Poor people’s energy outlook 2010 by Practical Action, 2010. "The report proposes an ecosystem of government, civil society and private organisations working together towards creation of universal energy access by 2030."
- "This publication will be of interest to anyone seeking to better understand energy access and its role in development at a human scale."

Win-Win Scenarios at the Climate-Development Interface: Challenges and Opportunities for Cookstove Replacement Programs Through Carbon Finance by Simon, Gregory, Bumpus, Adam G. and Mann, Philip, 10 September 2010. "In this paper we review the possibilities for win-win climate and development outcomes in programs that distribute improved efficiency cookstoves (ICS) with the use of carbon finance."

Stoking up a cookstove revolution: The secret weapon against poverty and climate change (PDF file) by Fred Pearce for Ashden Awards March 2010. "Our calculations suggest that a global programme to manufacture the half-billion improved stoves needed to convert the world’s poor to safer cooking could save hundreds of thousands of young lives a year - and at the same time cut global greenhouse gas emissions by the equivalent of up to one billion tonnes of CO2 a year."

Carbon offsets for forestry and bioenergy: Researching opportunities for poor rural communities by Leo Peskett, Jessica Brown and Kate Schreckenberg Februaruy 2010. "This report presents findings from a research study looking at the opportunities that carbon offset projects offer for poor rural communities."

Can REDD make natural forests competitive with oil palm? (PDF file) by By Lian Pin Koh and Rhett A. Butle for the International Tropical Timber Organization’s (ITTO) newsletter, February 2010. "The authors... note that since REDD carbon credits are currently limited to voluntary markets... they are unlikely to compete financially with oil palm on most types of land."

Sustainable Production of Second-Generation Biofuels: Potential and Perspectives in Major Economies and Developing Countries (PDF file) by the International Energy Agency, February 2010. "The paper focuses on opportunities and risks presented by second-generation biofuels technologies in eight case study countries: Brazil, Cameroon, China, India, Mexico, South Africa, Tanzania and Thailand."

Another Inconvenient Truth: How biofuel policies are deepening poverty and accelerating climate change (PDF file) by Oxfam International, 25 June 2008. This report argues that biofuels may not be a solution either for climate change or the oil crisis, and instead are actually creating a new crisis by driving up food prices and thereby dragging 30 million people into poverty.

Challenges and opportunities for developing countries in producing biofuels (PDF file) - UNCTAD, November 2006.

The Jatropha Energy System: An Integrated Approach To Decentralized And Sustainable Energy Production At The Village Level (PDF file) by Laurens Rademakers and Giovanni Venturini Del Greco, ISF Firenze.

Reducing Rural Poverty through Increased Access to Energy Services: A Review of the Multifunctional Platform Project in Mali by Abeeku Brew-Hammond and Anna Crole-Rees; UNDP, 2004.

Sustainability

Environmental impacts

A review of environmental issues in the context of biofuel sustainability frameworks by M.R. Guariguata, O.R. Masera, F.X. Johnson, G. von Maltitz, N. Bird, P. Tella, R. Martínez-Bravo, 2011. "This report examines how the most developed sustainability frameworks for feedstock production (including biofuels) address key environmental issues. It identifies critical gaps in these frameworks and proposes areas for improvement. The main finding is that the frameworks share broad sustainability principles yet they differ greatly in terms of their comprehensiveness and how they apply specific indicators for environmental issues, particularly with respect to land use change (both direct and indirect), allocation of degraded land for feedstock cultivation, and related accounting of greenhouse gas emissions."

Indicators to support environmental sustainability of bioenergy systems (PDF) by Allen C. McBride, Virginia H. Dale, Latha M. Baskaran, Mark E. Downing, Laurence M. Eaton, Rebecca A. Efroymson, Charles T. Garten Jr. , Keith L. Kline, Henriette I. Jager, Patrick J. Mulholland, Esther S. Parish, Peter E. Schweizer, John M. Storey, January 2011. The authors "identify 19 measurable indicators for soil quality, water quality and quantity, greenhouse gases, biodiversity, air quality, and productivity, building on existing knowledge and on national and international programs that are seeking ways to assess sustainable bioenergy. Together, this suite of indicators is hypothesized to reflect major environmental effects of diverse feedstocks, management practices, and post-production processes."

Grand Challenges for Life-Cycle Assessment of Biofuels by T. E. McKone, W. W. Nazaroﬀ, P. Berck, M. Auﬀhammer, T. Lipman, M. S. Torn, E. Masanet, A. Lobscheid, N. Santero, U. Mishra, A. Barrett, M. Bomberg, K. Fingerman, C. Scown, B. Strogen, and A. Horvath, January 2011. The authors "identiﬁed seven issues as grand challenges for applying LCA to biofuels. In the subsequent sections of this paper, [they] elaborate on each of these challenges and, where possible, note how progress might be made toward eﬀectively addressing them."

Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Land Use Change from Jatropha Curcas-Based Jet Fuel in Brazil by Robert E. Bailis and Jennifer E. Baka, October 2010. "This analysis presents a comparison of life-cycle GHG emissions from synthetic paraffinic kerosene (SPK) produced as jet fuel substitute from jatropha curcas feedstock cultivated in Brazil against a reference scenario of conventional jet fuel."[8]

Biofuels: indirect land use change and climate impact (PDF) by H.J. Croezen, G.C. Bergsma, M.B.J. Otten and M.P.J. van Valkengoed, June 2010. "The objectives of this study are to compile the available recent literature on ILUC emissions, compare these emissions with the assumed gains of biofuels, assess how ILUC changes the carbon balance of using biofuels and formulate policies to avoid these extra emissions associated with ILUC."

The Water Requirements of Biofuels, 2010 in AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment. From the abstract: "We assess the connection between water and energy production and conduct a comparative analysis for estimating the energy return on water invested (EROWI) for several renewable and non-renewable energy technologies using various Life Cycle Analyses. Our results suggest that the most water-efficient, fossil-based technologies have an EROWI one to two orders of magnitude greater than the most water-efficient biomass technologies, implying that the development of biomass energy technologies in scale sufficient to be a significant source of energy may produce or exacerbate water shortages around the globe and be limited by the availability of fresh water."[9]

The upfront carbon debt of bioenergy (PDF) by Joanneum Research, May 2010. When a raw material such as wood is burned, "the time needed to re-absorb the CO2 emitted in the atmosphere can be long, depending very much on the source of wood. This delay can create an upfront “carbon debt” that would substantially reduce the capability of bioenergy to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in the atmosphere in the short to medium term."

Land Use Changes and Consequent CO2 Emissions due to US Corn Ethanol Production: A Comprehensive Analysis (PDF) by the Department of Agricultural Economics Purdue University, April 2010. "[W]ith almost a third of the US corn crop today going to ethanol, it is simply not credible to argue that there are no land use change implications of corn ethanol. The valid question to ask is to what extent land use changes would occur." This report attempts to answer this question using modeling.

Tool for calculating greenhouse gases (GHG) in solid waste management (SWM) (PDF file) by Institut für Energie (Germany), July 2009. "The objective of this 'Tool for Calculating GHG Emissions in Solid Waste Management' (SWM-GHG Calculator) is to aid in understanding the effects of proper waste management on GHG emissions. The SWM-GHG Calculator allows quantification and comparison of GHG emissions for different waste management strategies at an early stage in the decision making process."

Implementing Sustainable Bioenergy Production A Compilation of Tools and Approaches (PDF file), 2008 by the IUCN. "This paper is a compilation of example principles, frameworks and tools already in use in the conservation community which may be applied to bioenergy production to identify and reduce environmental as well as socio-economic risks and promote opportunties."

Biofuel crops and the use of non-native species: Mitigating the risks of invasion, May 2008 by the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP). Addresses the impacts of biofuel crop selection on the potential spread of invasive species, and offers recommendations for crop assessment and selection.

Life Cycle Assessment of Energy Products: Environmental Assessment of Biofuels - Executive Summary (PDF file) by Rainer Zah, Heinz Böni, Marcel Gauch, Roland Hischier, Martin Lehmann & Patrick Wäger (translated by Thomas Ruddy); EMPA, Switzerland, 22 May 2007. The report examines the result of life-cycle analysis of both the greenhouse gas emissions and environmental impacts for a range of biofuels, including ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, and biogas, made from a range feedstocks. The report suggests that there may be trade-offs between greenhouse gas benefits and environmental impacts, mainly due to the effects of intensified agriculture.

Sustainability standards

Introduction to the RSB Certification Systems (PDF file) by the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels, 31 March 2010. "The RSB certification systems provide a comprehensive scheme for verification of compliance with the RSB standards for responsibly produced, processed and traded biomass/biofuels." This new document outlines the certification system for the RSB sustainability standards.[10]

Certification Strategies, Industrial Development and a Global Market for Biofuels (PDF). by Ricardo Hausmann and Rodrigo Wagner; Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs Sustainability Science Program, 13 January 2010.

Future Bioenergy and Sustainable Land Use (PDF file) by German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU), 2009. "WBGU’s central message is that use should be made of the global sustainable potential of bioenergy, provided that risks to sustainability can be excluded. In particular, the use of bioenergy must not endanger food security or the goals of nature conservation and climate protection." A summary for policy-makers (PDF) is also available.

Evaluating biofuel opportunities from a landscape perspective. "This brief describes three systems for biofuel production and identifies opportunities and risks for biodiversity conservation, rural livelihoods and farm production. How can we manage landscapes to produce greener biofuels that are better for the environment and the people? The brief discusses six landscape design principles and four areas for policy development." from Ecoagriculture Partners, May 2008.

The Challenge of Sustainable Bioenergy: Balancing climate protection, biodiversity and development policy - A Discussion Paper (PDF file) by Gerald Knauf, Jürgen Maier (German NGO Forum Environment & Development), Nikki Skuce (OneSky - Canada) and Annie Sugrue (CURES Southern Africa). This discussion paper looks at the challenges of sustainable bioenergy and makes suggestions for sustainable development including a focus on the use of biomass for heat and power, biogas as a transportation fuel as opposed to liquid biofuels.

Overview of recent developments in sustainable biomass certification (Draft) (PDF file) by Jinke van Dam, Martin Junginger, André Faaij, Ingmar Jürgens, Gustavo Best, Uwe Fritsche; IEA Bioenergy Task 40, December 2006.

Sustainability Standards for Bioenergy (PDF file) by Uwe R. Fritsche, Katja Hünecke, Andreas Hermann, Falk Schulze, Kirsten Wiegmann with contributions from Michel Adolphe; WWF Germany, Öko-Institut, November 2006.

Criteria for Sustainable Biomass Production (PDF file) - Final report of the project group Sustainable production of biomass, Interdepartmental Programme Management Energy Transition, Netherlands, 14 July 2006.

Draft Environmental Standards for Biofuels (PDF file) by The Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management, IIED, ADAS, Imperial College; LowCVP, 18 July 2006.

Feasibility Study on certification for a Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation(PDF file) by E4Tech, ECCM, and Imperial College London, UK, June 2005. This study addresses whether and how greenhouse gas and environmental standards and social standards should be linked to a Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation.

The impact of sustainability criteria on the costs and potentials of bioenergy production (PDF file) by Edward Smeets, André Faaij and Iris Lewandowski; Copernicus Institute, part of the FAIR Biotrade project funded by the Dutch electricity company Essent N.V. and NOVEM (Netherlands Organisation for Energy and the Environment), May 2005.

Trade

European Union and United States Biofuel Mandates: Impacts on World Markets (PDF file). By the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2010.
- "This study analyzes the potential impacts of the EU and US biofuels mandates on world markets. It also analyzes the impacts of limited consumption of Brazilian ethanol on the US and EU markets, including greenhouse emission reduction commitments and biofuels consumption targets. The study attempts to estimate the economic and environmental impacts on the US, EU and Brazil of the European Union and the United States mandates on biofuels."

Clean Energy Trends 2010 by Clean Edge. "[S]igns of hope have begun to emerge for the clean-tech sector. From Beijing to Seoul, and Washington, D.C. to Brussels, clean energy has become a driving force for economic recovery." 2010

Bounce-back in global clean energy investment continues, with first quarter total up 31% year-on-year (PDF) by Bloomberg New Energy Finance. "Bloomberg New Energy Finance’s quarterly figures cover financial investment – asset finance of wind farms, solar parks, biofuel plants and other projects; and public market, venture capital and private equity finance for clean energy companies." 12 April 2010.

International Bioenergy Trade - scenario study on international biomass markets in 2020 (PDF file), Jussi Heinimö, Virpi Pakarinen, Ville Ojanen and Tuomo Kässi; Lappeenranta University of Technology, Research Report 181, prepared for the IEA Bioenergy Task 40, 2007.

Biofuels production, trade and sustainable development: emerging issues (PDF file) by Anne Dufey, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), November 2006.

International trade in biofuels: Good for development? And good for environment? by Anne Dufey, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), January 2007.

WTO Disciplines and Biofuels: Opportunities and Constraints in the Creation of a Global Marketplace (PDF file) - International Food & Agricultural Trade Policy Council, October 2006.

Biofuels – Advantages and Trade Barriers (PDF file) prepared by Coelho, Suani Teixeira, UNCTAD, February 2005.

Regions

Africa

Reports dealing with Africa in general:

Grounded decisions: Informing policies that help the vulnerable adapt by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), 2009-2010 annual report. "Grounded decisions reports on CCAA (Climate Change Adaptation in Africa) activities and results for our fourth year of programming. It highlights the range of approaches our partners have taken to influence adaptation policies – and the results they are achieving."

Gender Mainstreaming Guide for Africa Biogas Partnership Programme by ENERGIA, July 2010. "The Guide targets non-gender specialists in recognising and addressing gender issues in their work, with the intention of demystifying gender, and clarifying the concept and practice of 'gender mainstreaming' within African Biogas Partnership Program. Accompanied by a Resource Kit, this Guide uses experiences from Asia as well as Africa."

Small-Scale Bioenergy Initiatives: Brief description and preliminary lessons on livelihood impacts from case studies in Asia, Latin America and Africa (PDF file) prepared for Pisces and FAO by Practical Action Consulting, January 2009.

Cookstoves and Markets: Experiences, Successes and Opportunities (PDF file) edited by Kavita Rai and Jeveta McDonald; GVEP-International, December 2009.

Brazil - UK - Africa: Partnership on Bioethanol Scoping Study - British Government, Dept. of Trade and Industry: , s.d. July 2006.

Turning Food Into Fuel: GM Drought Tolerant Soybean And Its Use In The Production Of Biodiesel African Centre for Biosafety, 10 November 2006.

Kenya

Bioenergy and Poverty in Kenya: Attitudes, Actors and Activities Prepared for Pisces by Practical Action Consulting in Eastern Africa, May 2010. "This report presents the findings of socio-economic baseline surveys carried out by the Eastern Africa office of Practical Action Consulting in Kenya... This was part of a broader baseline data creation exercise carried out across the respective PISCES countries around the same period to help provide a better understanding of some of the current issues relating to bioenergy use, access and delivery at the community level."

Mozambique

Biofuels, land access and rural livelihoods in Mozambique Isilda Nhantumbo and Alda Salomão, June 2010. "This report explores the early impacts of the biofuels boom on access to land and on local livelihoods in Mozambique. It draws on fieldwork on biofuel projects representing different business models for agricultural production."

South Africa

National Biofuels Study (PDF file) - African Sustainable Fuels Centre, 20 March 2007. "An investigation into the feasibility of establishing a biofuels industry in the Republic of South Africa which was prepared to assist in the development of a national strategy."[11]

Tanzania

Economic viability of Jatropha curcas L. plantations in Northern Tanzania (PDF file) by Nepomuk Wahl, Ramni Jamnadass, Henning Baur, Cristel Munster and Miyuki Iiyama of the World Agroforestry Centre. "This study examines the economic viability of jatropha seed production in three northern regions of Tanzania where a jatropha-based bioenergy value chain is about to emerge. Interviews with several farmers growing jatropha in the regions were conducted to create primary data on costs and benefits."

Biofuels, land access and rural livelihoods in Tanzania (PDF file) by Emmanuel Sulle and Fred Nelson for IIED: This paper describes "patterns of biofuel development and crop cultivation in Tanzanian rural areas" and "various potential threats and opportunities from biofuels expansion." December 2009

Liquid Biofuels for Transportation in Tanzania: Potential and Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Energy in the 21st Century (PDF file),GTZ, 2005.

Asia

Reports dealing with Asia in general:

Cookstoves and Markets: Experiences, Successes and Opportunities (PDF file) edited by Kavita Rai and Jeveta McDonald; GVEP-International, December 2009.

Small-Scale Bioenergy Initiatives: Brief description and preliminary lessons on livelihood impacts from case studies in Asia, Latin America and Africa (PDF file) prepared for Pisces and FAO by Practical Action Consulting, January 2009.

China

People's Republic of China Bio-Fuels: An Alternative Future for Agriculture 2006 (PDF file) prepared by Kevin Latner, Caleb O'Kray, Junyang Jiang; USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, 8 August 2006.

Environmental and Social Impact Analysis: Stora Enso Plantation project in Guangxi, China (PDF file) UNDP, 5 February 2006. This analyzes the social and environmental impact of a large-scale forest plantation project. Although this project is intended to supply pulp, its impacts are the same as if it were supplying bioenergy.

Liquid Biofuels for Transportation: Chinese Potential and Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Energy in the 21st Century (PDF file) - GTZ, 2005.

Health, Ecological, Energy And Economic Impacts Of Integrated Agricultural Bioenergy Systems In China And Institutional Strategies For Their Successful Diffusion (PDF file) by John Byrne, Young-Doo Wang, William Ritter (supervisors); Center for Energy and Environment Policy, U. of Delaware, October 2004.

India

Losing the plot: the threats to community land and the rural poor through the spread of the biofuel jatropha in India by Friends of the Earth Europe, March 2010: This report studies the problem of jatropha plantations in India forcing lower caste Indians from community lands.

An Assessment of the Biofuels Industry in India (PDF file) prepared by Joseph B.Gonsalves; UNCTAD, October 2006.

Validation Report of a Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Biomass Gasifier Power Plant Project in the north-Indian State of Bihar (PDF file) by Andreas Gantenbein (Validation by Prof. D. Spreng), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich, October 2005.

Liquid Biofuels for Transportation: India Country Study on Potential and Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Energy (PDF file) - GTZ, 2005.

Indonesia

Promised Land - Palm Oil and Land Acquisition in Indonesia: Implications for Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples by Marcus Colchester, Norman Jiwan, Andiko, Martua Sirait, Asep Yunan Firdaus, A. Surambo, Herbert Pane; Forest Peoples Programme, Perkumpulan Sawit Watch, HuMA and the World Agroforestry Centre, 2006. "An intensive, multi-disciplinary study of the legal and institutional processes of land acquisition for oil palm plantings in Indonesia with a focus on the rights of local communities and indigenous peoples."

Sri Lanka

Biogas Technology And Integrated Development (Experiences From Sri Lanka) (.doc) by Sanjeevani Munasinghe; Practical Action.

Thailand

An Assessment of the Biofuels Industry in Thailand (PDF file) prepared by Joseph B. Gonsalves; UNCTAD, September 2006.

Europe

Reports dealing with the European Union and other European countries:

Biofuels

The Refuel final road map (PDF file)- "a systematically described set of actions to be taken"..."to encourage a greater market penetration of biofuels" in the European Union - from The Refuel Project, March 2008.

Biofuels Progress Report - Report on the progress made in the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels in the Member States of the European Union (PDF file) - Communication From The Commission To The Council And The European Parliament, 10 January 2007.

The Introduction of Alternative Fuels in the European Transport Sector:techno-economic Barriers and perspectives (PDF file) E. Tzimas, A. Soria and S.D. Peteves, Joint Research Centre. June 2005

Biogas

Biogas And Others In Natural Gas Operations (Bongo): A Project Under Development (PDF file) by M. van Burgel, co-authors O. Florisson and D. Pinchbeck, paper presented at 23rd World Gas Conference, Amsterdam 2006.

Bioheat

Bioheat Applications in the European Union: an Analysis and Perspective for 2010 (PDF file) by B. Kavalov and S. D. Peteves, Joint Research Centre. March 2005.

Biomass

Good Practice Guidance on the Sustainable Mobilization of Wood in Europe (PDF file) - provides "an overview of measures that [European] countries can take to mobilize their wood resources"...including "avoiding the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and making a maximum amount of market information available to all the stakeholders."[12]

Biomass fuel trade in Europe Summary Report VTTR0350807 (PDF file) by Eija Alakangas, Antti Heikkinen, Terhi Lensu & Pirkko Vesterinen; VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Eubionet.com, March 2007.

Mobilizing Wood Resources: Can Europe's Forests Satisfy the Increasing Demand for Raw Material and Energy under Sustainable Forest Management? (PDF file) Prepared by Gero Becker, Evelyn Coleman, Sebastian Hetsch, Yves Kazemi, Kit Prins; United Nations Economic Commissions for Europe, 22 December 2006.

Climate change

A Strategy on Climate-Neutral Fuels, Recommendations to the Dutch Environment Ministry (VROM), July 2006.

Policy

Global Impacts of European Agricultural and Biofuel Policies, by Prins, A., B. Eickhout, M. Banse, H. van Meijl, W. Rienks, and G. Woltjer, 2011. "In this paper we show the regional impact of changes in the European Common Agricultural Policy and biofuel policy. Shifting trade patterns, changes in agricultural production, and expansion of agricultural area or intensification of agriculture result in changes in land use and land use emissions. Higher prices for agricultural crops on the world market together with changing production raise agricultural income. Brazil is the region the most affected."

Battles over Biofuels in Europe: NGOs and the Politics of Markets by Sarah Pilgrim and Mark Harvey, 2010. "In this paper, we argue that a consortium of NGOs has played a significant role in shaping the market for, and restricting the use of, biofuels as an alternative to conventional fuels for road transport in Europe."

Biofuels – At What Cost? Government support for ethanol and biodiesel in the European Union – 2010 Update (PDF) by Anna Jung, Philipp Dörrenberg, Anna Rauch, and Michael Thöne FiFo Institute of Public Economics, University of Cologne, July 2010. This report aims to quantify all of the financial support for ethanol and biodiesel from European Union member states.

European biofuel policies in retrospect (PDF file) by E. van Thuijl and E.P. Deurwaarder; Energy Research Center of the Netherlands, May 2006.

European Union Biofuels Policy and Agriculture: An Overview (PDF file), by Randy Schnepf, CRS Report for US Congress, 16 March 2006.

Sustainability

Feasibility Study on Certification for a Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (PDF file), Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management, Ltd., June 2005.

Transport

Transport and environment: on the way to a new common transport policy - TERM 2006 - indicators tracking transport and environment in the European Union (PDF file) - European Enviroment Agency, 2007.

Countries:

Greece

USDA GAIN Report: Biofuels Activity in Greece 2007 (PDF file) by Stamatis Sekliziotis, USDA, February 2007.

Latin America and the Caribbean

Reports dealing with Latin America and the Carribean in general:

Small-Scale Bioenergy Initiatives: Brief description and preliminary lessons on livelihood impacts from case studies in Asia, Latin America and Africa (PDF file) prepared for Pisces and FAO by Practical Action Consulting, January 2009.

A Blueprint for Green Energy in the Americas - Prepared for the Inter-American Development Bank by Garten Rothkopf, April 2007.

Ethanol Imports and the Caribbean Basin Initiative (PDF file), Brent D. Yacobucci, Specialist in Energy Policy Resources, Science, and Industry Division, The National Agricultural Law Center, Congressional Research Service Reports, February 10, 2006. While there is a 51 cent tariff on ethanol imported to the US, the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) allows the imports of ethanol duty-free from member countries. Much of the ethanol entering the United States under the CBI is generally produced elsewhere and reprocessed in CBI countries for export to the United States.

Brazil

Sugar cane and land use change in Brazil: Biofuel crops, indirect land use change and emissions (PDF) by Friends of the Earth Europe, August 2010. "This briefing looks at how increased demand for sugar cane has led to other agriculture being displaced in Brazil, resulting in deforestation and the loss of important stores of carbon dioxide."

Joint Water Quantity/Quality Management Analysis in a Biofuel Production Area (PDF file) by Márcia Maria Guedes Alcoforado de Moraes, Ximing Cai, Claudia Ringler, Bruno Edson Albuquerque, Sérgio P. Vieira da Rocha and Carlos Alberto Amorim for the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), May 2009.

Brazilian Ethanol: A Gift or Threat to the Environment and Regional Development? (PDF file) by Sriniketh Nagavarapu at the Department of Economics, Stanford University, January 2008. This report looks at regional issues in Brazil relating to sugarcane and ethanol production such as economics, regional inequality, threats to forests and US import barriers.

Agribusiness and Biofuels: an Explosive Mixture - Impacts of Monoculture Expansion on Bioenergy Production in Brazil (PDF file) by Silvia Noronha, Lúcia Ortiz (general coordination), Sergio Schlesinger (editorial coordination); Friends of the Earth, Brazil, 2006.

Liquid Biofuels for Transportation in Brazil: Potential and Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Energy in the 21st Century (PDF file),GTZ, 2005.

Sustainability of Brazilian Bioethanol (PDF file)by Edward Smeets, Martin Junginger, André Faaij (Utrecht University), Arnaldo Walter, and Paulo Dolzan (State University of Campinas); commissioned by SenterNovem, The Netherlands Agency for Sustainable Development and Innovation, August 2006.

Sustainability of ethanol from Brazil in the context of demanded biofuels imports by The Netherlands by Delcio Rodrigues and Lúcia Ortiz; Vitae Civilis & Friends of the Earth, Brazil, 2006.

Brazil of Biofuels - Soybean and Castor Bean 2009 (PDF file) by Biofuel Watch Center (ONG Reporter Brasil).

Brazil of Biofuels - SugarCane 2008 (PDF file)by Biofuel Watch Center (ONG Reporter Brasil).

Brazil of Biofuels - Palms, Cotton, Corn and Jatropha 2008 (PDF file)by Biofuel Watch Center (ONG Reporter Brasil).

Costa Rica

Clean Power in Costa Rica: Opportunities and Barriers (.doc), by Jessica Morey; Master’s Capstone Project, American University and the UN University for Peace, August 2006. Used with Permission.

Guyana

Biofuels potential in Guyana (PDF file) prepared by Luiz Augusto Horta, coordinated by Manlio F Coviella; United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, February 2007.

North America

United States

Reports dealing with the US:

Impact of second-generation biofuel agriculture on greenhouse-gas emissions in the corn-growing regions of the US by Sarah Davis, William Parton, Stephen Del Grosso, Cindy Keough, Ernest Marx, Paul Adler, Evan DeLucia, 2011. "If cellulosic feedstocks were planted on cropland that is currently used for ethanol production in the US, more ethanol (+82%) and grain for food (+4%) could be produced while at the same time reducing nitrogen leaching (−15 to −22%) and greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions (−29 to −473%). The GHG reduction was large even after accounting for emissions associated with indirect land-use change."[13]

Accounting Framework for Biogenic CO2 Emissions from Stationary Sources by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 27 September 2011. "The purpose of this study is to consider the scientific and technical issues associated with accounting for biogenic CO2 emitted from stationary sources and to develop a framework to account for those emissions. It presents a methodology for 'adjusting' estimates of onsite biogenic CO2 emissions on the basis of information about the carbon cycle."[14]

Impacts of Thinning on Carbon Stores in the PNW: A Plot Level Analysis by Joshua Clark, John Sessions, Olga Krankina, and Thomas Maness at Oregon State University, May 2011. "The purpose of this study is to determine the level of on-site carbon stores at a plot level under different fuel reduction thinning operations in different forest types in Oregon."[15]

The March 2010 report by the National Wildlife Federation, Growing a Green Energy Future, examines issues related to the sustainability of biomass utilization in the United States.

Growing a Green Energy Future: A Primer and Vision for Sustainable Biomass Energy (PDF file) by Loni Kemp and Julie M. Sibbing at the National Wildlife Federation, March 2010. This reports looks at policies for developing a sustainable biomass energy future and addresses some of the failures of first generation biofuels and the possibilities for success with second generation biofuels.[16]

Review of Peat Surface Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Oil Palm Plantations in Southeast Asia (PDF File) by S. E. Page, R. Morrison, C. Malins, A. Hooijer, J. O. Rieley & J. Jauhiainen; The International Council of Clean Transportation, September 2011. This report "finds that past studies have generally significantly underestimated emissions from palm oil grown on peatland. In particular, this will have resulted in underestimation of the indirect land use change emissions from many biofuels."[17]

The BioTown, USA Sourcebook of Biomass Energy (PDF file) by Mark Jenner, PhD; Indiana State Department of Agriculture and Reynolds, Indiana, 3 April 2006. BioTown, USA is a state-level plan to convert Reynolds, Indiana from a reliance on fossil fuels to biomass-based fuels. The sourcebook outlines the biomass resources and technologies potentially available to the town.

Algae

Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae by Michael Briggs; University of New Hampshire, Physics Department, revised August 2004.

Biofuels

Water Implications of Biofuels Production in the United States, National Research Council, October 2007.

Creating Markets for Green Biofuels: Measuring and improving environmental performance (PDF file) by Brian T. Turner, Richard J. Plevin, Michael O’Hare and Alexander E. Farrell; research report, UC Berkeley Institute of Transportation Studies, April 2007. Details a methodology and policy options for a Green Biofuels Index, which would rank biofuels according to how well they met environmental criteria. This would help create a market for more sustainable biofuels.

Biofuels: Statement Of Keith Collins, Chief Economist, U.S. Department Of Agriculture Before The U.S. Senate Committee On Agriculture, Nutrition And Forestry (PDF file) - 10 January 2007.

Economic and Agricultural Impacts of Ethanol and Biodiesel Expansion (PDF file) by Daniel De La Torre Ugarte, Burton English, Kim Jensen, Chad Hellwinckel, Jamey Menard, and Brad Wilson; University of Tennessee, funded in part by the Governors' Ethanol Coalition and the National Commission on Energy Policy, December 2006.

Water Use by Ethanol Plants: Potential Challenges by Dennis Keeney and Mark Muller. The Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, October 2006.

The Economic Feasibility of Ethanol Production From Sugar in the United States (PDF file) by Dr. Hossein Shapouri and Dr. Michael Salassi (principal authors); USDA, July 2006.

Biodiesel

What is Biodiesel (PDF file) by Shawn P. Conley and Bernie Tao; Purdue University, December 2006.

Biodiesel Quality: Is All Biodiesel Created Equal? (PDF file) by Shawn P. Conley and Bernie Tao; Purdue University, December 2006.

Is Biodiesel as Attractive an Economic Alternative as Ethanol? (PDF file) by Allan Gray Department of Agricultural Economics; Purdue University, December 2006.

Biomass

Forest Sustainability in the Development of Wood Bioenergy in the U.S. (PDF) by Pinchot Institute for Conservation and The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment, 2010. A discussion of "policy options at the federal, state, and local levels, as well as opportunities, that can minimize the sustainability risks related to the development of a wood bioenergy industry."

Wood 2 Energy: A State of the Science and Technology Report (PDF) by Samuel W. Jackson et al., May 2010. "[The] objectives included providing a complete literature review on the state of the science and developing a database of wood to energy related industries in the US and Canada. These industries include major forest product industries that produce residues, users of residues for energy (boilers, ethanol, etc), and related industries."

USDA Agricultural Projections to 2016 (PDF file) - Interagency Agricultural Projections Committee, February 2007.

Achieving Sustainable Production of Agricultural Biomass for Biorefinery Feedstock (PDF file) by J. Hettenhaus; CEA Inc. for the Biotechnology Industry Organization Industrial and Environmental Section, November 2006.

Biomass as feestock for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Industry: The Technical Feasibility of a Billion-Ton Annual Supply (PDF file) - A joint study by USDA and USDOE, April 2005.

Char

Black is the new green (PDF file) by Emma Marris; NATURE, Vol 442, 10 August 2006. Article explores the carbon sequestration and fertility benefits of using char produced as a by-product from gasification and other biofuel production technologies.

Ethanol

Ethanol Expansion in the United States - How Will the Agricultural Sector Adjust? (PDF file) by Paul C. Westcott of the USDA Economic Research Service.
- This report finds that the effects on agricultural markets of the ongoing expansion of corn-based ethanol in the United States will "extend well beyond the corn sector to supply and demand for other crops, such as soybeans and cotton, as well as to the livestock industries."

U.S. Ethanol Policy—Possibilities for the Future (PDF file) by Wallace E. Tyner; Department of Agricultural Economics, Purdue University, January 2007.

Ethanol and Energy Policy (PDF file) by Otto Doering; Department of Agricultural Economics, Purdue University, December 2006.

Economics of Ethanol (PDF file) by Chris Hurt, Wally Tyner, Otto Doering; Department of Agricultural Economics, Purdue University, December 2006.

Cellulosic ethanol

Corn Stover For Ethanol Production: Potential and Pitfalls (PDF file) by Liz Marshall and Zachary Sugg for the World Resources Institute, January 2009.
- "This study uses a national agro-environmental production model to evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of introducing a market for corn stover to support a stover-based ethanol industry."

Finding Balance: Agricultural Residues, Ethanol, and the Environment (PDF file) by Liz Marshall and Zachary Sugg for the World Resources Institute, December 2008.
- "This analysis explores the implications of corn stover harvest for soil carbon loss, nutrient (nitrogen) pollution, and erosion, as well as the potential to mitigate those impacts using available agricultural best management practices (BMPs) such as reduced tillage intensity and integration of winter cover crops (WCC) into production rotations."

Cellulosic Ethanol - Biofuel Beyond Corn (PDF file) by Nathan S. Mosier; Department of Agriculture and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, December 2006.

Corn ethanol

Corn Ethanol and Wildlife - How increases in corn plantings are affecting habitat and wildlife in the Prairie Pothole Region (PDF file), 2010, National Wildlife Federation

How Far Can Corn Take Us? Evaluating the Impacts of Ethanol (PDF file) by the Environmental Finance Center, University of Maryland, College Park, January 2008

Thirst for Corn: What 2007 Plantings Could Mean for the Environment (PDF file) by Liz Marshall for the World Resources Institute, June 2007.
- "This study explores the potential environmental impacts of the recent surge in corn production, and suggests some policy measures to help make agriculture in general more robust to increased demands for energy production."

Staying Home: How Ethanol will Change U.S. Corn Exports (PDF file) - Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, December 2006.

How Fuel Ethanol Is Made from Corn (PDF file) by Nathan S. Mosier and Klein Ileleji, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, December 2006. This is a simple introduction to how corn becomes ethanol.

US Federal Trade Commission 2006 Report on Ethanol Market Concentration (PDF file) - FTC, 1 December 2006.

The Long-Run Impact of Corn-Based Ethanol on the Grain, Oilseed, and Livestock Sectors: A Preliminary Assessment (PDF file) by Amani Elobeid, Simla Tokgoz, Dermot J. Hayes, Bruce A. Babcock, and Chad E. Hart; Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, November 2006.

Beyond the RFS: The Environmental and Economic Impacts of Increased Grain Ethanol Production in the U.S. by Liz Marshall and Suzie Greenhalgh; World Resources Institute, September 2006.

Estimating the Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol (PDF file) by Hosein Shapouri, James A. Duffield, and Michael S. Graboski; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Office of Energy, Agricultural Economic Report No. 721. July 1995.